Is it possible
That someone like you
Could complete me?

You're the only one I want
The only one I think about
The only one I truly love

You've treated me wrong sometimes
As I've done the same
But everyone makes mistakes
And your not one of mine

Be with me for the rest of time
I'll give you my heart
And you give me your mind

My tears are flowing for you
As my mind wonders and heart beats
My body is nothing without you

And as the wetness of my cheek are beginning to dry
And my thoughts weaken and try to forget
I feel like nothing without you

The beats within my chest were real,
Something that no one will ever steal
When there is nothing without you

But as I try to forget you more and more
My body grows weaker and begins to wear
Mind floats, rises to react

I know I'm nothing without you...

I've never seen you
Or touched your skin
I've never felt your lips
Or held you tight
But I know I love you

Not because of the way you look
Or because of that sexy voice
Not because of the things you say
But because of whom you are

When we meet I will kiss you
And hold you all night

I love everything about you
Because it's you

Manfaat Teh untuk Otak

Teh bisa memperbaiki kemampuan memori dalam otak. Demikian hasil rangkaian tes laboratorium yang dilakukan tim peneliti University of Newcastle. Teh hijau dan teh hitam mengaktifkan enzim dalam otak yang berhubungan dengan memori.

Teh bisa memperbaiki kemampuan memori dalam otak. Demikian hasil rangkaian tes laboratorium yang dilakukan tim peneliti University of Newcastle. Teh hijau dan teh hitam mengaktifkan enzim dalam otak yang berhubungan dengan memori.

Kedua jenis teh ini juga dapat menurunkan aktivitas enzim butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) yang pernah ditemukan dalam protein pada otak penderita Alzheimer. Baik teh hijau maupun teh hitam bisa secara signifikan menurunkan enzim yang mengganggu memori otak tersebut.

Air di Udara

Secara meteorologis, air merupakan unsur pokok paling penting dalam atmofer bumi. Air terdapat sampai pada ketinggian 12.000 hingga 14.000 meter, dalam jumlah yang kisarannya mulai dari nol di atas beberapa gunung serta gurun sampai empat persen di atas samudera dan laut. Bila seluruh uap air berkondensasi (atau mengembun) menjadi cairan, maka seluruh permukaan bumi akan tertutup dengan curah hujan kira-kira sebanyak 2,5 cm.

Air terdapat di atmosfer dalam tiga bentuk: dalam bentuk uap yang tak kasat mata, dalam bentuk butir cairan dan hablur es. Kedua bentuk yang terakhir merupakan curahan yang kelihatan, yakni hujan, hujan es, dan salju.

Atmofer membungkus bumi dengan lapisan-lapisan yang jelas batas-batasnya. Lapisan yang pertama dan yang paling bawah adalah troposfer. Tebal troposfer berkisar dari delapan kilometer di kutub sampai 16 km di khatulistiwa. Udara troposfer merupakah ketel pemasak cuaca bumi. Di dalam troposfer udara lembab yang dipanasi oleh tanah di bawahnya menggelembung ke atas di khatulistiwa, dan menciptakan aliran besar udara ke atas di daerah tropik. Jauh di sebelah utara, massa udara dingin dan kering turun ke bumi. Angin horisontal menderu melintasi padang salju dengan kecepatan tinggi. Suhu permukaan yang berkisar dari 38 derajat celcius di atas samudera dan gurun pasir sampai minus 73 derajat celcius di kutub menciptakan adukan dalam atmosfer dan menentukan cuaca beserta polanya di seluruh dunia. Di dalam troposfer suhu turun dengan bertambahnya ketinggian dari muka bumi atau dengan bertambahnya jarak dari sumber panas atmosfer, yakni bumi yang dipanasi matahari. Rata-rata suhu turun sebanyak dua derajat setiap kenaikan 305 meter.

Selain matahari, geometri bumi dan atmosfer, msih ada faktor terakhir yang mempengaruhi cuaca. Faktor ini adalah bentuk-bentuk geofisik permukaan bumi, seperti misalnya pegunungan, samudera, benua, lembah atau danau. Bagaimana cuaca di suatu daerah pada hari ini atau pada bulan yang akan datang itu sangat bergantung kepada bentuk permukaan daerah tersebut.

Daratan, misalnya lebih cepat mengumpulkan panas dan juga lebih cepat kehilangan panas dibandingkan dengan perairan. Karena air menahan panas lebih lama daripada tanah, orang yang berdiam dekat pantai atau dekat danau besar di pedalaman mengalami musim panas yang lebih sejuk dan musim dingin yang relatif lebih ringan bila dibandingkan dengan mereka yang bertempat tinggal juh dari danau atau lautan. Akibat lainnya ialah angin laut sejuk yang bertiup dari perairan pada siang hari, dan angin darat yang bertiup dari daratan pada malam hari. Hal itu merupakan ciri utama pola cuaca pesisir, khususnya di daerah tropik.

Air, sumber kehidupan

Air adalah material yang paling berlimpah di bumi ini, menutupi sekitar 71 persen dari muka bumi ini. Kehidupan hampir seluruhnya air, 50 sampai 97 persen dari seluruh berat tanaman dan hewan hidup dan sekitar 70 persen dari berat tubuh kita.

Kita bisa hidup sebulan tanpa makanan, tapi hanya bisa bertahan beberapa hari saja tanpa air. Air. seperti halnya energi, adalah hal yang esensial bagi pertanian, industri, dan hampir semua kehidupan.

Dengan bertambahnya kebutuhan air untuk kegiatan manusia dan juga peningkatan jumlah penduduk 212.000 orang per hari (1985), kelangkaan air merupakan hal yang ada dihadapan kita.

Jumlah air di permukaan bumi ini secara keseluruhan relatif tetap. Air akan selalu ada karena air bersirkulasi tidak pernah berhenti dari atmosfir ke bumi dan kembali ke atmosfir mengikuti siklus hidrologi. Tetapi apakah air akan hadir pada tempat, waktu, dan kualitas yang dibutuhkan ?.

Sea otter

The sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is a marine mammal native to the coasts of the northern and eastern North Pacific Ocean. Adult sea otters typically weigh between 14 and 45 kg (30 to 100 lb), making them the heaviest members of the weasel family, but among the smallest marine mammals. Unlike most marine mammals, the sea otter's primary form of insulation is an exceptionally thick coat of fur, the densest in the animal kingdom. Although it can walk on land, the sea otter is capable of living exclusively in the ocean.

The sea otter inhabits nearshore environments where it can quickly dive to the sea floor to forage. It preys mostly upon marine invertebrates such as sea urchins, various mollusks and crustaceans, and some species of fish. Its foraging and eating habits are noteworthy in several respects. First, its use of rocks to dislodge prey and to open shells makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools. In most of its range, it is a keystone species, controlling sea urchin populations which would otherwise inflict extensive damage to kelp forest ecosystems. Finally, its diet includes prey species that are also valued by humans as food, leading to conflicts between sea otters and fisheries.

Sea otters, whose numbers were once estimated at 150,000–300,000, were hunted extensively for their fur between 1741 and 1911, and the world population fell to 1,000–2,000 individuals in a fraction of their historic range. A subsequent international ban on hunting, conservation efforts, and reintroduction programs into previously populated areas have contributed to numbers rebounding, and the species now occupies about two-thirds of its former range. The recovery of the sea otter is considered an important success in marine conservation, although populations in the Aleutian Islands and California have recently declined or have plateaued at depressed levels. For these reasons (as well as its particular vulnerability to oil spills) the sea otter remains classified as an endangered species.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Taxonomy
o 1.1 Evolution
o 1.2 Subspecies
* 2 Physical characteristics
* 3 Behavior
o 3.1 Foraging
o 3.2 Social structure
o 3.3 Reproduction and lifecycle
* 4 Population and distribution
o 4.1 Russia
o 4.2 Alaska
o 4.3 British Columbia and Washington
o 4.4 California
* 5 Ecology
o 5.1 Diet
o 5.2 As a keystone species
o 5.3 Predators
* 6 Relationship with humans
o 6.1 Fur trade
o 6.2 Recovery and conservation
o 6.3 Economic impact
o 6.4 Role in human cultures
o 6.5 Aquariums and zoos
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 External links

[edit] Taxonomy

The first scientific description of the sea otter is contained in the field notes of Georg Steller from 1751, and the species was described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758.[1] Originally named Lutra marina, it underwent numerous name changes before being accepted as Enhydra lutris in 1922.[2] The generic name Enhydra, derives from the Ancient Greek en/εν "in" and hydra/ύδρα "water",[3] meaning "in the water", and the Latin word lutris, meaning "otter".[4] It was formerly sometimes referred to as the "sea beaver",[5] although it is only distantly related to beavers. It is not to be confused with the marine otter, a rare otter species native to the southern west coast of South America. A number of other otter species, while predominantly living in fresh water, are commonly found in marine coastal habitats as well.

[edit] Evolution
Although it is a relatively new marine mammal lineage, the sea otter can live in the ocean at all stages of life.
Although it is a relatively new marine mammal lineage, the sea otter can live in the ocean at all stages of life.

The sea otter is the heaviest member of the family Mustelidae,[6][7] a diverse group that includes the thirteen otter species and terrestrial animals such as weasels, badgers, and minks. It is unique among the mustelids in not making dens or burrows, in having no functional anal scent glands,[8] and in being able to live its entire life without leaving the water.[9] The only member of the genus Enhydra, the sea otter is so different from other mustelid species that as recently as 1982, some scientists believed it was more closely related to the earless seals.[10] Genetic analysis indicates that the sea otter and its closest extant relatives, which include the African speckle-throated otter, Eurasian otter, African clawless otter and oriental small-clawed otter, shared an ancestor approximately 5 million years ago (mya).[11]

Fossil evidence indicates that the Enhydra lineage became isolated in the North Pacific approximately 2 mya, giving rise to the now-extinct Enhydra macrodonta and the modern sea otter, Enhydra lutris.[2] The sea otter evolved initially in northern Hokkaidō and Russia, then spread east to the Aleutian Islands, mainland Alaska, and down the North American coast.[12] In comparison to cetaceans, sirenians, and pinnipeds, which entered the water approximately 50 mya, 40 mya, and 20 mya, respectively, the sea otter is a relative newcomer to a marine existence.[13] In some respects, however, the sea otter is more fully aquatically adapted than pinnipeds, which must haul out on land or ice to give birth.[14]

[edit] Subspecies

There are three recognized subspecies, which vary in body size and in some skull and dental characteristics:[6][15]

* The common sea otter, E. l. lutris (Linnaeus, 1758), ranges from the Kuril Islands to the Commander Islands in the western Pacific Ocean.[6] Also known as the Asian sea otter, it is the largest subspecies with a wide skull and short nasal bones.[16]
* The southern sea otter, E. l. nereis (Merriam, 1904), is found off the coast of central California.[6] Also known as the Californian sea otter, it has a narrower skull with a long rostrum and small teeth.[16]
* The northern sea otter, E. l. kenyoni[17] (Wilson, 1991), also known as the Alaskan sea otter, is native to the Aleutian Islands and mainland Alaska,[16] but has since been re-introduced to various locations from Alaska to Oregon.[6] While intermediate between the other subspecies in most characteristics, it has longer mandible bones.

characteristics
A sea otter's thick fur makes its body appear much plumper on land than in the water.
A sea otter's thick fur makes its body appear much plumper on land than in the water.

The sea otter is one of the smallest marine mammal species.[9] Male sea otters weigh 22 to 45 kg (49 to 99 lb) and are 1.2 to 1.5 m (4 to 5 ft) in length. Females are smaller, weighing 14 to 33 kg (30 to 73 lb) and measuring 1.0 to 1.4 m (3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 7 in) in length.[18]

Unlike other marine mammals, the sea otter has no blubber and relies on its exceptionally thick fur to keep warm.[19] With up to 150 thousand strands of hair per square centimeter (nearly one million per sq in), its fur is the most dense of any animal.[20] The fur consists of long waterproof guard hairs and short underfur; the guard hairs keep the dense underfur layer dry. Cold water is thus kept completely away from the skin and heat loss is limited.[18] The fur is thick year-round, as it is shed and replaced gradually rather than in a distinct molting season.[21] As the ability of the guard hairs to repel water depends on utmost cleanliness, the sea otter has the ability to reach and groom the fur on any part of its body, taking advantage of its loose skin and an unusually supple skeleton.[22] The coloration of the pelage is usually deep brown with sliver-gray speckles, however it can range from yellowish or grayish brown to almost black.[23] In adults, the head, throat, and chest are lighter in color than the rest of the body.[23]

The sea otter displays numerous adaptations to its marine environment. The nostrils and small ears can close.[24] The hind feet, which provide most of its propulsion in swimming, are long, broadly flattened, and fully webbed.[25] The fifth digit on each hind foot is longest, facilitating swimming while on its back, but making walking difficult.[26] The tail is fairly short, thick, slightly flattened, and muscular. The front paws are short with retractable claws, with tough pads on the palms that enable gripping slippery prey.[27]
Skeleton of a sea otter. The hind flippers are larger than the mitten-like front paws.
Skeleton of a sea otter. The hind flippers are larger than the mitten-like front paws.

The sea otter propels itself underwater by moving the rear end of its body, including its tail and hind feet, up and down,[25] and is capable of speeds of up to 9 km/h (5.6 mph).[6] When underwater, its body is long and streamlined, with the short forelimbs pressed closely against the chest.[28] When at the surface, it usually floats on its back and moves by sculling its feet and tail from side to side.[29] At rest, all four limbs can be folded onto the torso to conserve heat, whereas on particularly hot days the hind feet may be held underwater for cooling.[30] The sea otter's body is highly buoyant because of its large lung capacity – about 2.5 times greater than that of similarly-sized land mammals[31] – and the air trapped in its fur. The sea otter walks with a clumsy rolling gait on land, and can run in a bounding motion.[26]

Long, highly sensitive whiskers and front paws help the sea otter find prey by touch when waters are dark or murky.[9] Researchers have noted that when they approach in plain view, sea otters react more rapidly when the wind is blowing towards the animals, indicating that the sense of smell is more important than sight as a warning sense.[32] Other observations indicate that the sea otter's sense of sight is useful above and below the water, although not as good as that of seals.[33] Its hearing is neither particularly acute nor poor.[34]

An adult's 32 teeth, particularly the molars, are flattened and rounded, designed to crush rather than cut food.[35] Seals and sea otters are the only carnivores with two pairs of lower incisor teeth rather than three;[36] the adult dental formula is:[37]
3.1.3.1
2.1.3.2

The sea otter has a metabolic rate two or three times that of comparatively sized terrestrial mammals. It must eat an estimated 25 to 38% of its own body weight in food each day in order to burn the calories necessary to counteract the loss of heat due to the cold water environment.[38][39] Its digestive efficiency is estimated at 80 to 85%,[40] and food is digested and passed in as little as three hours.[19] Most of its need for water is met through food, although, in contrast to most other marine mammals, it also drinks seawater. Its relatively large kidneys enable it to derive fresh water from sea water and excrete concentrated urine.[41]


Sensitive whiskers and forepaws enable sea otters to find prey using their sense of touch.
Sensitive whiskers and forepaws enable sea otters to find prey using their sense of touch.

The sea otter is diurnal. It has a period of foraging and eating in the morning, starting about an hour before sunrise, then rests or sleeps in mid-day.[42] Foraging resumes for a few hours in the afternoon and subsides before sunset, and there may be a third foraging period around midnight.[42] Females with pups appear to be more inclined to feed at night.[42] Observations of the amount of time a sea otter must spend each day foraging range from 24 to 60%, apparently depending on the availability of food in the area.[43]

The sea otter spends much of its time grooming, which consists of cleaning the fur, untangling knots, removing loose fur, rubbing the fur to squeeze out water and introduce air, and blowing air into the fur. To an observer it appears as if the animal is scratching, however sea otters are not known to have lice or other parasites in the fur.[44] When eating, the sea otter rolls in the water frequently, apparently to wash food scraps from its fur.[45]

Foraging

The sea otter hunts in short dives, often to the sea floor. Although it can hold its breath for up to five minutes,[24] dives typically last about one minute and no more than four.[18] It is the only marine animal capable of lifting and turning over boulders, which it often does with its front paws when searching for prey.[45] The sea otter may also pluck snails and other organisms from kelp and dig deep into underwater mud for clams.[45] It is the only marine mammal that catches fish with its forepaws rather than with its teeth.[19]

Under each foreleg, the sea otter has a loose pouch of skin that extends across the chest. In this pouch (preferentially the left one), the animal stores collected food to bring to the surface.[46] There, the sea otter eats while floating on its back, using its forepaws to tear food apart and bring it to its mouth. It can chew and swallow small mussels with their shells, whereas large mussel shells may be twisted apart.[47] It uses its lower incisor teeth to access the meat in shellfish.[48] To eat large sea urchins, which are mostly covered with spines, the sea otter bites through the underside where the spines are shortest, and licks the soft contents out of the urchin's shell.[47]

The sea otter's use of rocks when hunting and feeding makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools.[49] To open hard shells, it may pound its prey with both paws against a rock on its chest. To pry an abalone off its rock, it hammers the abalone shell using a large stone, with observed rates of 45 blows in 15 seconds.[18] Releasing an abalone, which can cling to rock with a force equal to 4,000 times its own body weight, requires multiple dives.[18]
To keep from drifting apart, sea otters may sleep holding paws. Note the high buoyancy of the animals' bodies.
To keep from drifting apart, sea otters may sleep holding paws.[50] Note the high buoyancy of the animals' bodies.

Social structure

Although each adult and independent juvenile forages alone, sea otters tend to rest together in single-sex groups called rafts. A raft typically contains 10 to 100 animals, with male rafts being larger than female ones.[51] The largest raft ever seen contained over 2000 sea otters. To keep from drifting out to sea when resting and eating, sea otters may wrap themselves in kelp.[52]

A male sea otter is most likely to mate if he maintains a breeding territory in an area that is also favored by females.[53] As autumn is the peak breeding season in most areas, males typically defend their territory only from spring to autumn.[53] During this time, males patrol the boundaries of their territories to exclude other males,[53] although actual fighting is rare.[51] Adult females move freely between male territories, where they outnumber adult males by an average of five to one.[53] Males who do not have territories tend to congregate in large male-only groups,[53] and swim through female areas when searching for a mate.[54]

The species exhibits a variety of vocal behaviors. The cry of a pup is often compared to that of a seagull.[55] Females coo when they are apparently content; males may grunt instead.[56] Distressed or frightened adults may whistle, hiss, or in extreme circumstances, scream.[55]

Although sea otters can be playful and sociable, they are not considered to be truly social animals.[57] They spend much time alone, and each adult can meet its own needs in terms of hunting, grooming, and defense.[57]

[edit] Reproduction and lifecycle
During mating, the male bites the nose of the female, often bloodying and scarring it.
During mating, the male bites the nose of the female, often bloodying and scarring it.

Sea otters are polygynous: males have multiple female partners. However, temporary pair-bonding occurs for a few days between a female in estrus and her mate.[45] Mating takes place in the water and can be rough, the male biting the female on the muzzle – which often leaves scars on the nose – and sometimes holding her head under water.[6][58]

Births occur year-round, with peaks between May and June in northern populations and between January and March in southern populations.[59] Gestation appears to vary from four to twelve months, as the species is capable of delayed implantation followed by four months of pregnancy.[59] In California, sea otters usually breed every year, about twice as often as sea otters in Alaska.[60]

Birth usually takes place in the water and typically produces a single pup weighing 1.4 to 2.3 kg (3 to 5 lb).[61] Twins occur in 2% of births; however, usually only one pup survives.[6] At birth, the eyes are open, ten teeth are visible, and the pup has a thick coat of baby fur.[62] Mothers have been observed to lick and fluff a newborn for hours; after grooming, the pup's fur retains so much air that the pup floats like a cork and cannot dive.[63] The fluffy baby fur is replaced by adult fur after about thirteen weeks.[1]
A mother floats with her pup on her chest. Georg Steller wrote, "They embrace their young with an affection that is scarcely credible."
A mother floats with her pup on her chest. Georg Steller wrote, "They embrace their young with an affection that is scarcely credible."[64]

Nursing lasts six to eight months in California populations and four to twelve months in Alaska, with the mother beginning to offer bits of prey at one to two months.[65] The milk from a sea otter's two abdominal nipples is rich in fat and more similar to the milk of other marine mammals than to that of other mustelids.[66] A pup, with guidance from its mother, practices swimming and diving for several weeks before it is able to reach the sea floor. Initially the objects it retrieves are of little food value, such as brightly colored starfish and pebbles.[46] Juveniles are typically independent at six to eight months, however a mother may be forced to abandon a pup if she cannot find enough food for it[67] and at the other extreme, a pup may nurse until it is almost adult size.[61] Pup mortality is high, particularly during an individual's first winter – by one estimate, only 25% of pups survive their first year.[67] Pups born to experienced mothers have the highest survival rates.[68]

Females perform all tasks of feeding and raising offspring, and have occasionally been observed caring for orphaned pups.[69] Much has been written about the level of devotion of sea otter mothers for their pups – a mother gives her infant almost constant attention, cradling it on her chest away from the cold water and attentively grooming its fur.[70] When foraging, she leaves her pup floating on the water, sometimes wrapped in kelp to keep it from floating away;[71] if the pup is not sleeping, it cries loudly until she returns.[72] Mothers have been known to carry their pup for days after the pup's death.[64]

Females become sexually mature at around three or four years of age and males at around five; however, males often do not successfully breed until a few years later.[73] A captive male sired offspring at age 19.[61] In the wild, sea otters live to a maximum age of 23 years,[18] with average lifespans of 10–15 years for males and 15–20 years for females.[74] Several captive individuals have lived past 20 years, and a female at the Seattle Aquarium died at the age of 28 years.[75] Sea otters in the wild often develop worn teeth, which may account for their apparently shorter lifespans.[76]

Population and distribution

See also: Sea otter conservation

A raft of sea otters in Moss Landing, California.
A raft of sea otters in Moss Landing, California.

Sea otters live in coastal waters 15 to 23 meters (50 to 75 ft) deep,[77] and usually stay within a kilometer (⅔ mi) of the shore.[78] They are found most often in areas with protection from the most severe ocean winds, such as rocky coastlines, thick kelp forests, and barrier reefs.[79] Although they are most strongly associated with rocky substrates, sea otters can also live in areas where the sea floor consists primarily of mud, sand, or silt.[80] Their northern range is limited by ice, as sea otters can survive amidst drift ice but not land-fast ice.[81] Individuals generally occupy a home range a few kilometers long, and remain there year-round.[82]

The sea otter population is thought to have once been 150,000 to 300,000,[5] stretching in an arc across the North Pacific from northern Japan to the central Baja Peninsula in Mexico. The fur trade that began in the 1740s reduced the sea otter's numbers to an estimated 1,000 to 2,000 members in thirteen colonies. In about two-thirds of its former range, the species is at varying levels of recovery, with high population densities in some areas and threatened populations in others. Sea otters currently have stable populations in parts of the Russian east coast, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and California, and there have been reports of recolonizations in Mexico and Japan.[83] Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 107,000 sea otters.[84][85][86][1][87]

Russia

Currently, the most stable and secure part of the sea otter's range is Russia.[88] Before the 19th century there were around 20,000 to 25,000 sea otters in the Kuril Islands, with more on Kamchatka and the Commander Islands. After the years of the Great Hunt, the population in these areas, currently part of Russia, was only 750.[84] As of 2004, sea otters have repopulated all of their former habitat in these areas, with an estimated total population of about 27,000. Of these, about 19,000 are in the Kurils, 2000 to 3500 on Kamchatka and another 5000 to 5500 on the Commander Islands.[84] Growth has slowed slightly, suggesting that the numbers are reaching carrying capacity.[84]

Alaska

Alaska is the heartland of the sea otter's range. In 1973, the sea otter population in Alaska was estimated at between 100,000 and 125,000 animals.[89] By 2006, however, the Alaska population had fallen to an estimated 73,000 animals.[85] A massive decline in sea otter populations in the Aleutian Islands accounts for most of the change; the cause of this decline is not known, although orca predation is suspected.[90] The sea otter population in Prince William Sound was also hit hard by the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which killed thousands of sea otters in 1989.[45]

British Columbia and Washington

Along the North American coast south of Alaska, the sea otter's range is discontinuous. Between 1969 and 1972, 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. They established a healthy population, estimated to be over 3,000 as of 2004, and their range is now from Tofino to Cape Scott.[86] In 1989, a separate colony was discovered in the central British Columbia coast. It is not known if this colony, which had a size of about 300 animals in 2004, was founded by transplanted otters or by survivors of the fur trade.[86]

In 1969 and 1970, 59 sea otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington State. Annual surveys between 2000 and 2004 have recorded between 504 and 743 individuals, and their range is in the Olympic Peninsula from just south of Destruction Island to Pillar Point.[1]
California has over 3,000 sea otters, descendants of approximately 50 individuals discovered in 1938.
California has over 3,000 sea otters, descendants of approximately 50 individuals discovered in 1938.

In British Columbia and Washington, sea otters are found almost exclusively on the outer coasts. Reported sightings of sea otters in the San Juan Islands and Puget Sound almost always turn out to be northern river otters which are commonly seen along the seashore. However, biologists have confirmed isolated sightings of sea otters in these areas since the mid-1990s.[1]

California

The spring 2007 sea otter survey counted 3,026 sea otters in the central California coast, down from an estimated pre-fur trade population of 16,000.[87][91] California's sea otters are the descendants of a single colony of about 50 southern sea otters discovered near Big Sur in 1938;[92] their principal range is now from just south of San Francisco to Santa Barbara County.[91] In the late 1980s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service relocated about 140 California sea otters to San Nicolas Island in southern California, in the hope of establishing a reserve population should the mainland be struck by an oil spill. To the surprise of biologists, the San Nicholas population initially shrank as the animals migrated back to the mainland,[93] As of 2005, only 30 sea otters remained at San Nicholas,[94] thriving on the abundant prey around the island.[93] The plan that authorized the translocation program had predicted that carrying capacity would be reached within 5 to 10 years.

When the Fish and Wildlife Service implemented the translocation program, it also attempted to implement "zonal management" of the California population. To manage the competition between sea otters and fisheries, it declared an "otter-free zone" stretching from Point Conception to the Mexican border. In this zone, only San Nicolas Island was designated as sea otter habitat, and sea otters found elsewhere in the area were supposed to be captured and relocated. These plans were abandoned after it proved impractical to capture the hundreds of otters which ignored regulations and swam into the zone.[95] However, after engaging in a period of public commentary in 2005, the Fish and Wildlife Service has yet to release a formal decision on the issue.[94]

Ecology

Diet
Sea otters keep kelp forests healthy by eating animals that graze on kelp.
Sea otters keep kelp forests healthy by eating animals that graze on kelp.

Sea otters consume over 100 different prey species.[96] In most of its range, the sea otter's diet consists almost exclusively of marine invertebrates, including sea urchins, a variety of bivalves such as clams and mussels, abalone, other mollusks, crustaceans, and snails.[96] Its prey ranges in size from tiny limpets crabs and giant octopuses.[96] Where prey such as sea urchins, clams, and abalone are present in a range of sizes, sea otters tend to select larger items over smaller ones of similar type.[96] In California, it has been noted that sea otters ignore Pismo clams smaller than 3 inches (7 cm) across.[97]

In a few northern areas, fish are also eaten. In studies performed at Amchitka Island in the 1960s, where the sea otter population was at carrying capacity, 50% of food found in sea otter stomachs was fish.[98] The fish species were usually bottom-dwelling and sedentary or sluggish forms, such as the red Irish lord and globefish.[98] However, south of Alaska on the North American coast, fish are a negligible or extremely minor part of the sea otter's diet.[99][1] Contrary to popular depictions, sea otters rarely eat starfish, and any kelp that is consumed apparently passes through the sea otter's system undigested.[100]

The individuals within a particular area often differ in their foraging methods and their prey types, and tend to follow the same patterns as their mothers.[101] The diet of local populations also changes over time, as sea otters can significantly deplete populations of highly preferred prey such as large sea urchins, and prey availability is also affected by other factors such as fishing by humans.[1] Sea otters can thoroughly remove abalone from an area except for specimens in deep rock crevices,[102] however, they never completely wipe out a prey species from an area.[103] A 2007 California study demonstrated that in areas where food was relatively scarce, a wider variety of prey was consumed. However, surprisingly, the diets of individuals were more specialized in these areas than in areas where food was plentiful.[93]

As a keystone species

Sea otters are a classic example of a keystone species; their presence affects the ecosystem more profoundly than their size and numbers would suggest. Sea otters keep the population of certain benthic (sea floor) herbivores, particularly sea urchins, in check. Sea urchins graze on the lower stems of kelp, causing the kelp to drift away and die. Loss of the habitat and nutrients provided by kelp forests leads to profound cascade effects on the marine ecosystem. North Pacific areas that do not have sea otters often turn into urchin barrens, with abundant sea urchins and no kelp forest.[6]
Remote areas of coastline, such as this area in California, sheltered the few remaining colonies of sea otters that survived the fur trade.
Remote areas of coastline, such as this area in California, sheltered the few remaining colonies of sea otters that survived the fur trade.

Reintroduction of sea otters to British Columbia has led to a dramatic improvement in the health of coastal ecosystems,[104] and similar changes have been observed as sea otter populations recovered in the Aleutian and Commander Islands and the Big Sur coast of California[105] However, some kelp forest ecosystems in California have also thrived without sea otters, with sea urchin populations apparently controlled by other factors.[105] The role of sea otters in maintaining kelp forests has been observed to be more important in areas of open coast than in more protected bays and estuaries.[105]

In addition to promoting growth of kelp forests, sea otters can also have a profound effect in rocky areas that tend to be dominated by mussel beds. They remove mussels from rocks, liberating space for competitive species and thereby increasing the diversity of species in the area.[106]

[edit] Predators

Predators of sea otters include orcas and sea lions; bald eagles also prey on pups by snatching them from the water surface.[49] In California, bites from sharks, particularly great white sharks, have been estimated to cause 10% of sea otter deaths and are one of the reasons the population has not expanded further north.[107] Dead sea otters have been found with injuries from shark bites, although there is no evidence that sharks actually eat them.[107]

Relationship with humans

[edit] Fur trade
Aleut men in Unalaska in 1896. The waterproof kayak gear and garments were used to hunt sea otters.
Aleut men in Unalaska in 1896. The waterproof kayak gear and garments were used to hunt sea otters.

Archaeological evidence indicates that for thousands of years, indigenous peoples have hunted sea otters in moderation for food and fur.[5] Large-scale hunting, which would eventually kill approximately one million sea otters, began in the 1700s when hunters and traders began to arrive from all over the world to meet foreign demand for otter pelts, which were one of the world's most valuable types of fur.[5]

In the early 1700s, Russians began to hunt sea otters in the Kuril Islands and sold them to China.[5] Russia was also exploring the far northern Pacific at this time, and sent Vitus Bering to map the Arctic coast and find routes from Siberia to North America.[108] In 1741, on his second North Pacific voyage, Bering was shipwrecked off Bering Island in the Commander Islands, where Bering and many of his crew died.[108] The surviving crew members, which included naturalist Georg Steller, discovered sea otters on the beaches of the island and spent the winter hunting sea otters and gambling with otter pelts.[108] They returned to Siberia having killed nearly 1000 sea otters, and were able to command high prices for the pelts.[108] Thus began what is sometimes called the "Great Hunt", which would continue for another hundred years.
Pelt sales (in thousands) in the London fur market. The drop beginning in the 1880s reflects dwindling sea otter populations.
Pelt sales (in thousands) in the London fur market. The drop beginning in the 1880s reflects dwindling sea otter populations.[109]

Russian fur-hunting expeditions soon depleted the sea otter populations in the Commander Islands, and by 1745 they began to move on to the Aleutian Islands. The Russians initially traded with the Aleuts inhabitants of these islands for otter pelts, but later enslaved the Aleuts, taking women and children hostage and torturing and killing Aleut men to force them to hunt. Many Aleuts were either murdered by the Russians or died from diseases that the hunters had introduced.[110] The Aleut population was reduced, by the Russians' own estimate, from 20,000 to 2,000.[111] By the 1760s, the Russians had reached Alaska. Other nations joined in the hunt in the south. Along the coasts of what is now Mexico and California, Spanish explorers bought sea otter pelts from Native Americans and sold them in Asia.[110] In 1778, British explorer Captain James Cook reached Vancouver Island and bought sea otter furs from the First Nations people.[112] When Cook's ship later stopped at a Chinese port, the pelts rapidly sold at high prices, and were soon known as "soft gold". As word spread, people from all over Europe and North America began to arrive in the Pacific Northwest to trade for sea otter furs.[112]

Russian hunting expanded to the south, in what is now Washington, Oregon, and California, and the Russians founded what is now the Fort Ross settlement in northern California as their southern headquarters.[112] In the next 29 years, they would kill 50,000 California sea otters.[112]

Eventually, sea otter populations became so depleted that commercial hunting was no longer viable. In the Aleutian Islands, commercial hunting had stopped by 1808.[113] When Russia sold Alaska to the United States in 1867, the Alaska population had recovered to over 100,000, but Americans resumed hunting and quickly extirpated the sea otter again.[113] Prices rose as the species became rare: During the 1880s, a pelt brought $105 to $165 in the London market, however by 1903 a pelt could be worth as much as $1,125.[61] In 1911, Russia, Japan, Great Britain (for Canada) and the United States signed the Treaty for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals, imposing a moratorium on the harvesting of sea otters.[114] So few remained, perhaps only 1,000–2,000 individuals in the wild, that many believed the species would become extinct.[1]

Recovery and conservation

Main article: Sea otter conservation

In the wake of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, heavy sheens of oil covered large areas of Prince William Sound.
In the wake of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, heavy sheens of oil covered large areas of Prince William Sound.

During the 20th century, sea otter numbers rebounded in about two-thirds of their historic range, a recovery that is considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation.[115] However, the IUCN lists the sea otter as an endangered species, and describes the significant threats to sea otters as oil pollution, predation by orcas, poaching, and conflicts with fisheries – sea otters can drown if entangled in fishing gear.[116] The hunting of sea otters is no longer legal except for limited harvests by indigenous peoples in the United States.[117] Poaching was a serious concern in the Russian Far East immediately after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, however it has declined significantly with stricter law enforcement and better economic conditions.[88]

The most significant threat to sea otters is oil spills.[49] Sea otters are particularly vulnerable, as they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animal quickly dies from hypothermia.[49] The liver, kidneys, and lungs of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming.[49] The Exxon Valdez oil spill of 24 March 1989 killed thousands of sea otters in Prince William Sound, and as of 2006 the lingering oil in the area continues to affect the population.[118] Describing the public sympathy for sea otters that developed from media coverage of the event, a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service spokesperson wrote:

As a playful, photogenic, innocent bystander, the sea otter epitomized the role of victim ... cute and frolicsome sea otters suddenly in distress, oiled, frightened, and dying, in a losing battle with the oil.[1]

The small geographic ranges of the sea otter populations in California, Washington, and British Columbia mean that a single major spill could be catastrophic for that state or province.[45][39][1] Prevention of oil spills and preparation for the rescue of otters in the event of one are major areas of focus for conservation efforts. Increasing the size and the range of sea otter populations would also reduce the risk of an oil spill wiping out a population.[1] However, because of the species' reputation for depleting shellfish resources, advocates for commercial, recreational, and subsistence shellfish harvesting have often opposed allowing the sea otter's range to increase, and there have even been instances of fishermen and others illegally killing them.[119]
Sea otters in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Note the unusual shape of the hind feet, in which the outer toes are longest.
Sea otters in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Note the unusual shape of the hind feet, in which the outer toes are longest.

In the Aleutian Islands, a massive and unexpected disappearance of sea otters has occurred in recent decades. In the 1980s, the area was home to an estimated 55,000 to 100,000 sea otters, but the population fell to around 6,000 animals by 2000.[95] The most widely-accepted, but still controversial, hypothesis is that orcas have been eating the otters. The pattern of sea otter disappearances is consistent with a rise in orca predation, however there has been no direct evidence that orcas prey on sea otters to any significant extent.[90]

Another area of concern is California, where recovery began to fluctuate or decline in the late 1990s.[120] Unusually high mortality rates amongst adult and sub-adult otters, particularly females, have been reported.[87] Necropsies of dead sea otters indicate that diseases, particularly Toxoplasma gondii infection and acanthocephalan parasite infection, are a major cause of sea otter mortality in California.[121] The Toxoplasma gondii parasite, which is often fatal to sea otters, is carried by wild and domestic cats and by opossums, and may be transmitted by domestic cat droppings flushed into the ocean via the sewage system.[121][122] Although it is clear that disease has contributed to the deaths of many of California's sea otters, it is not known why the California population is apparently more affected by disease than populations in other areas.[121]

Sea otter habitat is preserved through several protected areas in the United States, Russia and Canada. In marine protected areas, polluting activities such as dumping of waste and oil drilling are typically prohibited.[123] There are estimated to be more than 1,200 sea otters within the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, and more than 500 within the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary.[124] [125]

Economic impact
A sea otter using a rock to break open a shell
A sea otter using a rock to break open a shell

Some of the sea otter's preferred prey species, particularly abalone, clams, and crabs, are also food sources for humans. In some areas, massive declines in shellfish harvests have been blamed on the sea otter, and intense public debate has taken place over how to manage the competition between sea otters and humans for seafood.[126]

The debate is complicated by the fact that sea otters have sometimes been held responsible for declines of shellfish stocks that were more likely caused by overfishing by humans, disease, pollution, and seismic activity.[127][45] Shellfish declines have also occurred in many parts of the North American Pacific coast that do not have sea otters, and conservationists sometimes note that the existence of large concentrations of shellfish on the coast is a recent development resulting from the fur trade's near-extirpation of the sea otter.[127] Although many factors affect shellfish stocks, sea otter predation can deplete a fishery to the point that it is no longer commercially viable.[126] There is a consensus among scientists that sea otters and abalone fisheries cannot co-exist in the same area,[126] and the same is likely true for certain other types of shellfish as well.[95]

There are many facets to the interaction between sea otters and the human economy that are not as immediately felt. Sea otters have been credited with contributing to the kelp harvesting industry via their well-known role in controlling sea urchin populations; kelp is used in the production of diverse food and pharmaceutical products.[128] Although human divers harvest red sea urchins both for food and to protect the kelp, sea otters hunt more sea urchin species and are more consistently effective in controlling these populations.[129] The health of the kelp forest ecosystem is significant in nurturing populations of fish, including commercially important fish species.[128] In some areas, sea otters are a popular tourist attraction, bringing visitors to local hotels, restaurants, and sea otter-watching expeditions.[128]

Role in human cultures

Aleut carving of a sea otter hunt

Left: Aleut sea otter amulet in the form of a mother with pup. Above: Aleut carving of a sea otter hunt on a whalebone spear. Both items are on display at the St. Petersburg Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Articles depicting sea otters were considered to have magical properties.[130]

For many maritime indigenous cultures throughout the North Pacific, especially the Ainu in the Kuril Islands, the Koryaks and Itelmen of Kamchatka, the Aleut in the Aleutian Islands and a host of tribes on the Pacific coast of North America, the sea otter has played an important role as a cultural as well as material resource. In these cultures, many of which have strongly animist traditions full of legends and stories in which many aspects of the natural world are associated with spirits, the sea otter was considered particularly kin to humans. The Nuu-chah-nulth, Haida, and other First Nations of coastal British Columbia used the warm and luxurious pelts as chiefs' regalia. Sea otter pelts were given in potlatches to mark coming-of-age ceremonies, weddings, and funerals.[50] The Aleuts carved sea otter bones for use as ornaments and in games, and used powdered sea otter baculum as a medicine for fever.[131]
Sea otters at the Lisbon Oceanarium show their flexibility when grooming.
Sea otters at the Lisbon Oceanarium show their flexibility when grooming.

Among the Ainu, the otter is portrayed as an occasional messenger between humans and the creator.[132] Versions of a widespread Aleut legend tell of lovers or despairing women who plunge into the sea and become otters.[133] These links have been associated with the many human-like behavioral features of the sea otter, including apparent playfulness, strong mother-pup bonds and tool use, yielding to ready anthropomorphism.[134] The beginning of commercial exploitation had a great impact on the human as well as animal populations – the Ainu and Aleuts have been displaced or their numbers are dwindling, while the coastal tribes of North America, where the otter is in any case greatly depleted, no longer rely as intimately on sea mammals for survival.[135]

Since the mid-1970s, the beauty and charisma of the species have gained wide appreciation, and the sea otter has become an icon of environmental conservation.[120] The round, expressive face and soft furry body of the sea otter are depicted in a wide variety of souvenirs, postcards, clothing, and stuffed toys.

Aquariums and zoos

Sea otters can do well in captivity, and are featured in over 40 public aquariums and zoos.[137] The Seattle Aquarium became the first institution to raise sea otters from conception to adulthood with the birth of Tichuk in 1979, followed by three more pups in the early 1980s.[138] In 2007, a YouTube video of two sea otters holding paws drew 1.5 million viewers in two weeks, and currently has over 10.5 million views.[139] Filmed five years previously at the Vancouver Aquarium, it was YouTube's most popular animal video at the time, although it has since been surpassed. The lighter-colored otter in the video is Nyac, a survivor of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill.[140]

Marvelous Muck Diving

Many would consider the title an oxymoron. How could an area consisting of muddy sediment with poor visibility and, at times, a good collection of discarded trash be considered a marvelous place? Well, if you've never had the opportunity to dive such a place, hopefully this adventure will sway you to reconsider such a dive.

For the few, well-traveled, adventurous divers who have explored these areas, the word "Muck" conjures the thought of resplendent colors and alien life forms few have ever seen. Some of the more famous muck sites around the world have been well documented by avid underwater photographers and cinematographers. Places like Sipadan, Lembeh Strait and Borneo, among others, along the Indo-Pacific, attract divers from thousands of miles, and for millions of dollars.

Our attraction to discover such a place was fueled by our fascination to explore a side of nature we had not seen before. Drawn by tales of unique, and almost mystical, creatures we set out to chance upon this unique place. Inspired by our adamant belief that we do not need to travel half way across the world to find some of the ocean's most prized creatures (coupled with my hourly-challenged vacation time at work), we set out to find such a place in Florida.



It wasn't long before we discovered such a place, and with camera and scuba tanks in-hand, Fritz and I went off to explore this unearthly place. Who would have believed this place was nothing more than a simple beach dive? Even after ten years of exploring the reefs along the Florida coast, we could never have imagined all that abounds so close to home.

As suggested by my diving friends, I checked the tide charts a few days before (reason being that the only time to sanely enter the water, in this area without risk of being carried away into the middle of the ocean, was during a slack tide). All suited up and ready to go, Fritz and I meandered into deeper water. As our tide tables predicted, the incoming tide was on the last minutes of its journey. We took advantage of this gentle current to slowly carry us to one of the prime dive spots.



Absent any reef, here were man-made structures and discards that seemed to attract creatures to this uncharted place. My eyes quickly recognized a few denizens of the coral reef world - a juvenile Highhat, tons of Fireworms and even a juvenile Scorpionfish. This place was a living nursery of reef creatures.

The next obvious place to check for any signs of life was around the legions of human trash - items such as discarded traps, glass bottles and even clay pots, revealed what I suspected: even more fascinating creatures. Inside a small clay pot, half buried in the muck, was an octopus who curled itself, as a means of protection, from the approaching diver and his underwater camera.

Many of the glass bottles even contained their own mingled measure of marine life. A Seaweed Blenny peered out of its green glass home, long enough to see me approach, before making a tail-first dive back in. As Edward Abbey often remarked, "There are no vacant lots in nature," and this Marvelous Muck was quickly becoming the epitome of his statement.



Fritz had his share of amazing encounters, which he shared with me. One of the more intriguing was an odd-looking creature that neither of us had seen before. It was a Bandtail Sea Robin using a pair of finger-like appendages, which emanated from its modified pectoral fins, to walk and shuffle the muck in search of food.

With the tide receding and our visibility quickly dropping, like two kids in a swimming pool, we hesitantly called it a day for this magnificent dive. Our drive back home was filled with recollections of our observations, and with a growing enthusiasm for a repeat visit.

Many months and many visits later, we undertake every opportunity to explore this place we call the Marvelous Muck. Throughout our visits we have made many new and exciting discoveries: from the seldom seen Sea Horse and its close cousin, the Pipefish, to creatures like the Long Brisile Eunice (aka The Bobbit Worm), which seems to have been designed for some Hollywood horror movie. Little could we imagine the diversity of life that we would find within a few footsteps from the beach.



This captivating place has enlightened us to see the world around us from a different perspective. Edward Abbey also once said, "In order to see that which is not readily apparent, we must break old habits and learn to see anew." Through patience, perseverance and an endless appetite for nature's wonders, we continue to discover this miniature world full of creatures one would expect to find on another planet. Luckily for us, this marvelous place is right under our toes.

Bandung

Bandung (pronounced [bʌndʊŋ]) is the capital of West Java province in Indonesia, and the country's fourth largest city. Located 768 m (2,520 ft) above sea level, Bandung has relatively year-around cooler temperature than most other Indonesian cities. The city lies on a river basin and surrounded by volcanic mountains. This topology provides the city with a good natural defense system, which was the primary reason of Dutch East Indies government's plan to move the colony capital from Batavia to Bandung.





The Dutch colonials first opened tea plantantions around the mountains in the eighteenth century, followed by a road construction connecting the plantation area to the capital (180 km or 112 miles to the northwest). The European inhabitants of the city demanded the establishment of a municipality (gemeente), which was granted in 1906 and Bandung gradually developed itself into a resort city for the plantation owners. Luxurious hotels, restaurants, cafes and European boutiques were opened of which the city was dubbed as Parijs van Java.

After Indonesian independence, the city experienced a rapid development and urbanization that has transformed Bandung from idyllic town into a dense 15,000 people/km² metropolitan area, a living space for over 2 million people. Natural resources have been exploited excessively, particularly in the conversions of protected upland area into highland villa and real estates. Although the city has encountered many problems, ranging from waste disposal, floods to chaotic traffic system, Bandung however still has its charm to attract people flocking into the city, either as weekend travellers or living in.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Geography
* 2 History
* 3 Administration
* 4 Demographics
* 5 Architecture
* 6 Culture
o 6.1 Tourism industry
o 6.2 Sports
* 7 Transport
* 8 Science and education
* 9 Economy
* 10 Environmental issues
* 11 Sister Cities
* 12 Awards
* 13 See also
* 14 References
* 15 External link

Geography
Mount Tangkuban Perahu
Mount Tangkuban Perahu

Bandung, the capital of West Java province, located about 180 km (112 miles) southeast of Jakarta, is the fourth largest city in Indonesia [1] with over 2.6 million population in 2006 and over 6.7 million people on the greater Bandung regency & metropolitan area. It's rated the fastest growing city / urban region in Indonesia [2]. Its elevation is 768 metres (2,520 ft) above sea level and is surrounded by up to 2,400 m (7,874 ft) high Late Tertiary and Quarternary volcanic terrain. [3] The 400 km² flat of central Bandung plain is situated in the middle of 2,340.88 km² wide of the Bandung Basin; the basin comprises Bandung, the Cimahi satellite city, part of Bandung Regency, and part of Sumedang Regency.[4] The basin's main river is the Citarum; one of its branches, the Cikapundung, divides Bandung from north to south before it merges with Citarum again in Karawang. The Bandung Basin is an important source of water for drinking water, irrigation and fisheries, and its 6,147 million m³ of groundwater is a major reservoir for the city.[4]

The northern part of the city is hillier than the rest; the distinguished truncated flat-peak shape of the Tangkuban Perahu volcano (Tangkuban Perahu literally means 'up-turned boat') can be seen from the city to the north. Long-term volcanic activity has created fertile andisol soil in the north, suitable for intensive rice, fruit, tea, tobacco and coffee plantations. In the south and east, alluvial soils deposited by the Cikapundung river are mostly found.

Geological data shows that the Bandung Basin is located on an ancient volcano, known as Mount Sunda, erected up to 3,000–4,000 metres (9,850–13,100 ft) during the Pleistocene age.[5] Two large scale eruptions took place; the first formed the basin and the other (est. 55,000 Before Present) blocked the Citarum river, turning the basin into a lake known as "the Great Lake of Bandung".[6] The lake drained away; the reason for which is the subject of ongoing debate among geologists.[7][8]

Due to its elevation, the climate in Bandung is cooler than most Indonesian cities and can be classified as humid; the average temperature is 23.6 °C (74.5 °F) throughout the year.[9] The average annual rainfall ranges from 1,000 millimetres in the central and southeast regions to 3,500 millimetres in the north of the city.[4] The wet season conforms with other Indonesian regions, around November to April.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Temperature (°C)
(°F) 23.9
75.0 23.3
73.9 23.4
74.1 24.1
75.4 24.2
75.6 23.5
74.3 22.9
73.2 23.4
74.1 23.6
74.5 23.7
74.7 23.7
74.7 23.7
74.7
23.6
74.5
Precipitation (mm) 72.1 265.6 365.0 136.0 117.7 37.4 40.5 74.7 76.3 314.2 185.9 197.2
1182.6
Evaporation (mm) 3.7 2.9 3.2 3.0 3.4 3.3 3.7 3.9 3.7 3.2 2.5 2.7
3.3
Rel. humidity (%) 75 82 82 78 75 71 67 69 71 77 80 81
76
Air pressure (mb) 922.5 921.7 922.2 921.9 921.9 922.3 922.8 922.5 923.0 922.6 922.0 922.1
922.3
Source: Bandung Dalam Angka (Bandung in Numbers), 2003.[9]

History

Main article: History of Bandung

The Dutch-built Gedung Sate
The Dutch-built Gedung Sate
The Historical Asia-Afrika Street, Bandung
The Historical Asia-Afrika Street, Bandung

The earliest reference to the city dates back to 1488, but archaeological findings suggest a type of Homo erectus species had lived on the banks of the Cikapundung River and around the old lake of Bandung.[10] During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) opened plantations in the Bandung area. A supply road connecting Batavia (now Jakarta), Bogor, Cianjur, Bandung, Sumedang and Cirebon was built in 1786. In 1809, Louis Napoleon, the ruler of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and its colonies, ordered the Dutch Indies Governor H.W. Daendels to increase the defensive systems of Java against the British from India. Daendels built a road, stretching approximately 1,000 km (621 miles) from the west to the east coast of Java, and passing through Bandung.[11][12] In 1810, the road was laid down in Bandung and was named De Groote Postweg (or the 'main post road'), the present-day site of Asia-Afrika Street. Under Daendels' orders, R.A. Wiranatakusumah II, the chief administration of the Bandung regency at that time, moved its office from Krapyak, in the south, to a place near a pair of holy city wells (sumur Bandung), the present-day site of the city square (alun-alun). He built his dalem (palace), masjid agung (the grand mosque) and pendopo (public-official meeting place) in the classical orientation.[13] The pendopo faces Tangkuban Perahu mountain, which was believed to have a mystical ambience.

In 1880, the first major railroad between Batavia and Bandung was built,[14] boosting light industry in Bandung. Chinese who had previously never lived in the city flocked to help run facilities, services and selling vendor machines. The old Chinatown district in Bandung is still recognisable in the railroad station vicinity. In 1906, Bandung was given the status of gemeente (municipality) and then later as stadsgemeente (city municipality) in 1926.

In the beginning of the 1920s, the Dutch East Indies government made plans to move the capital of Dutch East Indies from Batavia to Bandung. Accordingly, during this decade, the Dutch colonial government started building military barracks, the central government building (Gouvernments Bedrijven, the present-day Gedung Sate) and other government buildings. This plan, however, was cut short by World War II after which the Dutch were not able to re-established their colony.

The fertile area of the Parahyangan Mountains surrounding Bandung supports productive tea plantations. In the nineteenth century, Franz Junghuhn introduced the cinchona (kina) plant.[15] With its cooler elevated landscape, surrounded by major plantations, Bandung became an exclusive European resort area.[16] Rich plantation owners visited the city on weekends, attracting girls and businessmen from the capital, Batavia. Braga Street grew into a promenade street with cafes, restaurants and boutique shops. Two art-deco style hotels, Savoy Homann and Preanger, were built in the vicinity of the Concordia Society, a club house for the wealthy with a large ballroom and a theatre.[14] The nickname "Parijs van Java" was given to the city.
Gedung Merdeka during the Asian-African Conference in 1955
Gedung Merdeka during the Asian-African Conference in 1955

After the Indonesian Independence in 1945, Bandung was determined as the capital of West Java province. During the 1945–1949 independence struggle against the Dutch when they wanted to reclaim their colonies, Bandung was one of the heaviest battle places. The Dutch military commander set an ultimatum for the Indonesian combatants in Bandung to leave the city. In response, on 24 March 1946, much of the southern part of Bandung was deliberately set alight as the combatants left; an event known as the Bandung Lautan Api or 'Bandung Sea of Flame'.[17]

In 1955, the first Asian-African Conference was held in Bandung, attended by head of states representing twenty-nine countries and colonies from Asia and Africa. The conference venue was at the Gedung Merdeka, the former Concordia Society building. The conference announced 10 points of declaration on world peace promotion and oppositions against colonialism, known as the Declaration of Bandung, which followed by wave of nationalism movements around the globe and remapped the world politics.[18] The conference was also the first international conference of colored people in the history of mankind.[19] Richard Wright in his book, The Color Curtain, captured the epic meanings of the conference for people of color around the world.[19] Even black freedom movement activists in the United States referred Bandung as Afro-Asian solidarity in 1960s.[20]

In 1987, the city boundary was expanded with the Greater Bandung (Bandung Raya) plan; a relocation of higher concentration development outside the city in an attempt to dilute some of population in the old city. During its development, however, the city core is often uprooted, old faces are torn down, lot sizes regrouped, and what was idyllic residence is bustling chain supermarkets and rich banks.[16]

Administration
List of Mayors
Flag of the Netherlands Dutch-Indies
E.A. Maurenbrecher (exofficio) 1906-1907
R.E. Krijboom (exofficio) 1907-1908
J.A. van Der Ent (exofficio) 1909-1910
J.J. Verwijk (exofficio) 1910-1912
C.C.B. van Vlenier (exofficio) 1912-1913
B. van Bijveld (exofficio) 1913-1920
B. Coops 1920-1921
S.A. Reitsma 1921-1928
B. Coops 1928-1934
Ir. J.E.A. van Volsorgen Kuhr 1934-1936
Mr. J.M. Wesselink 1936-1942
N. Beets 1942-1942
Flag of Japan Japanese Occupation
Raden A. Atma dit Nata 1942-1945
Flag of Indonesia Indonesia
Ir. Ukar Bratakusumah 1946-1949
R. Enoch 1949-1956
R. Priatna Kusumah 1956-1966
R. Didi Jukardi 1966-1968
Hidayat Sukarmadijaya 1968-1971
R. Otje Djundjunan 1971-1976
Ucu Junaedi 1976-1978
R. Husein Wangsaatmaja 1978-1983
Ateng Wahyudi 1983-1993
Wahyu Hamidjaja 1993-1998
Aa Tarmana 1998-2003
Dada Rosada 2003-...
Source: official website[21]

The city area in 1906 was only 19.22 square kilometres and it has been expanded several times until the 1987 expansion into 167.2965 km².[9] The city administration is divided into 26 subdistricts (kecamatan) and 139 villages (kelurahan). A mayor (walikota) leads the city administration. Since 2005, the city residents directly voted for a mayor, while previously mayors were nominated and selected by the city council members or known as the Regional People's Representative Council (DPRD). As of 2003, the total number of city administration personnel, including the mayor, is 20,163.[9]

Demographics

Most of Bandung population are of Sundanese descent. Javanese is largest minority, from nearby provinces and eastern part of Java. Notable minorities include Chinese Indonesians, Indian Indonesians, and Korean Indonesians. [22]

Architecture

See also: Indonesian architecture

Institut Teknologi Bandung. Ceremonial Hall by architect Henri Maclaine-Pont
Institut Teknologi Bandung. Ceremonial Hall by architect Henri Maclaine-Pont

Bandung is renowned for its large stock of Dutch colonial architecture; most notably the tropical Art Deco architectural style. Henri Maclaine-Pont is among the first Dutch architects who realized how important to combine each architectural style with culture of local people. He stressed that modern architecture should be evolved from local history and native elements.[23] In 1920, Pont planned and designed buildings for the first technical university in the Dutch East Indies, Technische Hogeschool te Bandung (the present-day Institut Teknologi Bandung), after which he was named as a professor in architecture at the university. A striking local Javanese roof style is noticeably seen on top of the campus' ceremonial hall, embedded in his artwork.[23]
Bandung Cathedral
Bandung Cathedral

In the same year, another Dutch architect, J Gerber, designed Gouverments Bedrijven (Government Companies) in line with the colonial government plan to move the capital from Batavia to Bandung. The building is an example of harmonical mixture between West and East architectural styles, particularly the Italian Renaissance style of arch structures in the west wing and Thailand's pagoda-like structures in the middle section.[citation needed] The building is known as Gedung Sate, named after the distinguished small satay shaped structure on the roof, and used as the head office of West Java provincial government and West Java's house of representative.

The modern and native architectural blending was followed by several Dutch architects that have shaped the city landmarks. In the 1930s, Bandung was known also as the city of architecture laboratory because of many Dutch architects made some experiments with new architectural designs. Albert Aalbers added the expressionist architecture style to the Art Deco by designing the DENIS bank (1936) and renovated the Savoy Homann Hotel (1939). C.P.W. Schoemaker was one of celebrated architects who strongly added native elements in his artworks, including the Villa Isola (1932), Hotel Preanger (1929), the regional military headquarter (1918), Gedung Merdeka (1921) and ITB Rectorate Building (1925).[23]

Culture
Angklung
Angklung

Bandung is the capital of West Java, a province of which most of its residents are mainly Sundanese people. Sundanese language is spoken a second language after Indonesian and it is commonly used as an informal language for communication in streets and markets.

A popular traditional musical instrument is angklung, made of parallel bamboo tubes tuned to specific frequencies with a hammer and is shaken to produce certain notes. Music is performed by a choir of angklung players, each of whom are responsible for sounding certain notes. Its melody is only slightly different from that of Central Java's gamelan ensembles.

Tourism industry

Bandung has served for popular weekend-break destination for people living in Jakarta for many reasons. The cooler climate of highland plantation area, the varieties of food, the cheaper fashion shops located in factory outlets and distros, golf courses, and the friendliness of local people have become the main attraction of the city.[24]
Denim store, Cihampelas Street
Denim store, Cihampelas Street

In the 1990s, local designers opened denim clothing stores along Cihampelas Street which gave Bandung another nickname, the "Tourist Shopping City" (Kota Wisata Belanja). It was a success as the-then residential street had been fully transformed into a "jeans street". The city attracts people from other big cities to buy local fashion wears, as they are cheaper than branded items.[25]
The Martabak
The Martabak

The city gained more shoppers to come when textile factories in the outskirt of Bandung opened a fashion store that sells their products directly from the factory. The products are tagged as sisa export (rejected or over-produced export quality items) and these shops are called factory outlets. The trend was followed by another factory outlets.[26]

Sports

Bandung is the home town of the soccer team Persib Bandung. Another soccer team Persikab is based in neighbouring city of Cimahi, part of Bandung Regency. The most popular football stadium is Siliwangi Stadium.

Other popular sports in Bandung include badminton (see Taufik Hidayat, gold medal winner at the 2004 Summer Olympics) and basketball. The roads leading up to Lembang and Dago are popular routes for mountain cycling during the weekend. In the hillside around Bandung, there are a couple of golf courses.

Transport

Bandung can be accessed through 3 highways from Jakarta. An intercity toll highway, named as Cipularang toll road, connecting Jakarta, Karawang, Purwakarta, Padalarang and Bandung, has recently been completed in May 2005. It is currently the fastest way to go to Bandung from the capital. Driving time is about 1.5 hours on average. There are 2 other options: the Puncak route (Jakarta-Cianjur/Sukabumi-Bandung) or the Subang route (Jakarta-Cikampek-Subang-Lembang-Bandung). From eastern part of the cities (Cirebon, Tasikmalaya and Central Java province), Bandung can be accessed through the main provincial road.

The Pasupati bridge recently opened to the public, relieving traffic jams in the city for east-west transport. The 2.8 km cable-stayed bridge lies through the valley of Cikapundung. It is 30 to 60 metres wide and after extensive delays, its construction finally completed in June 2005, following financial investment from Kuwait.[27] The bridge is part of Bandung's comprehensive inner-city highways plan.

Taxis are widely available. The primary means of public transportation is by minibus, called angkot (from angkutan=transportation and kota=city). They serve certain routes throughout the city and are operated privately. To find exact angkot routes, information are available through the drivers or at terminals. City-owned buses, called DAMRI, operates on larger relatively long routes. Bandung has 2 intercity bus terminals: Leuwipanjang, serving buses from the west, and Cicaheum, serving buses from the east.

Bandung Husein Sastranegara International Airport serves direct flights to Batam, Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Denpasar, Palembang and Padang and also international services from Kuala Lumpur. The airport is located nearby the Dirgantara aerospace complex and Dirgantara Fairground.

Railway connects Bandung to Jakarta, Purwakarta, Bekasi, Karawang and Cikampek to the west, and Surabaya, Yogyakarta and Solo to the east. It is also the major means of transportation for people living in suburb areas of Cimahi, Padalarang, Rancaekek, Cicalengka and Cileunyi.

Science and education

There are hundreds of public and private schools in Bandung. Like in other Indonesian cities, Bandung has several state-funded and administered junior high and high schools, called State Junior High Schools (SMPN) and State High Schools (SMA), respectively. At least sixteen universities — three of which are state-owned universities — and 45 professional schools are scattered throughout the city. Education from social sciences, technology until tourism education can be found in one of those universities. The Institut Teknologi Bandung is the oldest technical university in Indonesia having been established since 1920, and the Universitas Padjadjaran is the best university that West Java owned and also one of the most prestigious universities in Indonesia. And both institutions are located close to each other at the Dago Area.

In the north of Bandung, Bosscha Observatory has been the only and the oldest observatory in Indonesia. Construction of the observatory began in 1923 and was completed in 1928. In 1922, the first international publication from Bosscha Observatory was published and in 1959, the observatory was included as a part of the department of astronomy in the Institut Teknologi Bandung.

Economy
Fresh products at a market in Bandung
Fresh products at a market in Bandung

Bandung economy is mainly built upon tourism, manufacturing, textile/apparel, education institutions, technology, retail, services, financial, pharmaceutical, food, among others. Those are the major investments and most popular fields/industries being sought here.[28]

Bandung has nearly 50 higher educational institutions and is among the most popular destination for education in Indonesia. Creative-based culture has shaped the basis of Bandung economy. The once quiet residential district of Dago has become an important business and entertainment centre. Chic cafes and restaurants are spreading out along Dago Street. In the early 1990s Cihampelas Street became a popular clothing store location.

The distro sell stylish non-trademarked products, made by local designers. Books, indie label records, magazines, fashion products and other accessories are typical distro products. After their products receive large teenagers attention, then these local designers make their own clothing company. Now, there are more than 200 local brand names in Bandung. Distro distance itself from factory outlet in term of its philosophy. Distros come from individual designers and young entrepreneurs, while factory outlet products come from a garment factory.[29]

Environmental issues
A mountain of trash at Pagarsih Street
A mountain of trash at Pagarsih Street

The north of the city serves as a water reservoir for Bandung's 2 million people, however, the area has seen much residential development. Several attempts to reserve this area have been made, including the creation of reserves, such as the Juanda National Park and Puncrut, but the development continues. The real danger has come in the form of several floodings in Bandung's south.[30]

In the middle of 2006, Bandung faced another environmental disaster, as the city's land fill site was reevaluated after a landslide in 2005.[31] Collection of 8,000 m3/day domestic garbage piled up, causing air pollution, spreading of diseases, and water contamination. The provincial government eventually stepped in to solve the garbage issues.[32][33]

Sister Cities

Bandung has sister relationships with a number of towns worldwide:

* Flag of the Philippines Cebu, Philippines
* Flag of Germany Brunswick, Germany
* Flag of the United States Fort Worth, USA
* Flag of South Korea Suwon, South Korea
* Flag of Japan Hamamatsu, Japan
* Flag of Italy Bari, Italy

Environmental issues in Indonesia

Environmental issues in Indonesia associated with human activities are forest degradation (unregulated cutting, fires, smoke and haze, and erosion); water pollution from industrial waste and sewage; air pollution from motor vehicles and industry in urban areas, and generally from smoke and haze caused by forest fires; and threats to biodiversity and rare plant and animal species.

For centuries, the geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists of the formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali; another cultural complex is composed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector; a third, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest farming communities which exist by means of subsistence swidden agriculture. To some degree, these patterns can be linked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favoring the use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains--at least in the Greater Sunda Islands--permitting irrigated rice farming. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture.

Each of these patterns of ecological and economic adaptation experienced tremendous pressures during the 1970s and 1980s, with rising population density, soil erosion, river-bed siltation, and water pollution from agricultural pesticides and off-shore oil drilling. In the coastal commercial sector, for instance, the livelihood of fishing people and those engaged in allied activities--roughly 5.6 million people--began to be imperiled in the late 1970s by declining fish stocks brought about by the contamination of coastal waters. Fishermen in northern Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the virtual disappearance of the terburuk fish in some areas. Effluent from fertilizer plants in Gresik in northern Java polluted ponds and killed milkfish fry and young shrimp. The pollution of the Strait of Malacca between Malaysia and Sumatra from oil leakage from the Japanese supertanker Showa Maru in January 1975 was a major environmental disaster for the fragile Sumatran coastline. The danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait.

The coastal commercial sector suffered from environmental pressures on the mainland, as well. Soil erosion from upland deforestation exacerbated the problem of siltation downstream and into the sea. Silt deposits covered and killed once-lively coral reefs, creating mangrove thickets and making harbor access increasingly difficult, if not impossible, without massive and expensive dredging operations.

Although overfishing by Japanese and American "floating factory" fishing boats was officially restricted in Indonesia in 1982, the scarcity of fish in many formerly productive waters remained a matter of some concern in the early 1990s. As Indonesian fishermen improved their technological capacity to catch fish, they also threatened the total supply.

A different, but related, set of environmental pressures arose in the 1970s and 1980s among the rice-growing peasants living in the plains and valleys. Rising population densities and the consequent demand for arable land gave rise to serious soil erosion, deforestation because of the need for firewood, and depletion of soil nutrients. Runoff from pesticides polluted water supplies in some areas and poisoned fish ponds. Although national and local governments appeared to be aware of the problem, the need to balance environmental protection with pressing demands of a hungry population and an electorate eager for economic growth did not diminish.

Major problems faced the mountainous interior regions of Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Sumatra. These problems included deforestation, soil erosion, massive forest fires, and even desertification resulting from intensive commercial logging--all these threatened to create environmental disaster. In 1983 some 30,000 km² of prime tropical forest worth at least US$10 billion were destroyed in a fire in Kalimantan Timur Province. The disastrous scale of this fire was made possible by the piles of dead wood left behind by the timber industry. Even discounting the calamitous effects of the fire, in the mid-1980s Indonesia's deforestation rate was the highest in Southeast Asia, at 7,000 km² per year and possibly as much as 10,000 km² per year. Although additional deforestation came about as a result of the government-sponsored Transmigration Program (transmigrasi) in uninhabited woodlands, in some cases the effects of this process were mitigated by replacing the original forest cover with plantation trees, such as coffee, rubber, or palm. In many areas of Kalimantan, however, large sections of forest were cleared, with little or no systematic effort at reforestation. Although reforestation laws existed, they were rarely or only selectively enforced, leaving the bare land exposed to heavy rainfall, leaching, and erosion. Because commercial logging permits were granted from Jakarta, the local inhabitants of the forests had little say about land use, but in the mid-1980s, the government, through the Department of Forestry, joined with the World Bank to develop a forestry management plan. The efforts resulted in the first forest inventory since colonial times, seminal forestry research, conservation and national parks programs, and development of a master plan by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN).

Natural hazards: occasional floods, severe droughts, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanoes, forest fires

Environment - current issues: deforestation; water pollution from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from forest fires

Indonesia's Forests in Brief

Indonesia is experiencing one of the highest rates of tropical forest loss in the world.

Indonesia was still densely forested as recently as 1950. Forty percent of the forests existing in 1950 were cleared in the following 50 years. In round numbers, forest cover fell from 162 million ha to 98 million ha.

The rate of forest loss is accelerating. On average, about 1 million ha per year were cleared in the 1980s, rising to about 1.7 million ha per year in the first part of the 1990s. Since 1996, deforestation appears to have increased to an average of 2 million ha per year.

Indonesia’s lowland tropical forests, the richest in timber resources and biodiversity, are most at risk. They have been almost entirely cleared in Sulawesi and are predicted to disappear in Sumatra by 2005 and Kalimantan by 2010 if current trends continue.

Nearly one half of Indonesia’s forests are fragmented by roads, other access routes, and such developments as plantations.
Deforestation in Indonesia is largely the result of a corrupt political and economic system that regarded natural resources, especially forests, as a source of revenue to be exploited for political ends and personal gain.

Logging concessions covering more than half the country’s total forest area were awarded by former President Suharto, many of them to his relatives and political allies. Cronyism in the forestry sector left timber companies free to operate with little regard for long-term sustainability of production.

As part of the effort to boost Indonesia’s export revenues, and to reward favored companies, at least 16 million ha of natural forest have been approved for conversion to industrial timber plantations or agricultural plantations. In many cases, conversion contradicted legal requirements that such plantations be established only on degraded land or on forest land already allocated for conversion.

Aggressive expansion of Indonesia’s pulp and paper industries over the past decade has created a level of demand for wood fiber that cannot currently be met by any sustainable domestic forest management regime.

Forest clearance by small-scale farmers is a significant but not dominant cause of deforestation.
Illegal logging has reached epidemic proportions as a result of Indonesia’s chronic structural imbalance between legal wood supply and demand.

Illegal logging, by definition, is not accurately documented. But a former senior official of the Ministry of Forestry recently claimed that theft and illegal logging have destroyed an estimated 10 million ha of Indonesian forests.

Massive expansion in the plywood, pulp, and paper production sectors over the past two decades means that demand for wood fiber now exceeds legal supplies by 35-40 million cubic meters per year.

This gap between legal supplies of wood and demand is filled by illegal logging. Many wood processing industries openly acknowledge their dependence on illegally cut wood, which accounted for approximately 65 percent of total supply in 2000.

Legal logging is also conducted at an unsustainable level. Legal timber supplies from natural production forests declined from 17 million cubic meters in 1995 to under 8 million cubic meters in 2000, according to recent statistics from the Ministry of Forestry. The decline has been offset in part by timber obtained from forests cleared to make way for plantations. But this source appears to have peaked in 1997.

Industrial timber plantations have been widely promoted and subsidized as a means of supplying Indonesia’s booming demand for pulp and taking pressure off natural forests. In practice, millions of hectares of natural forest have been cleared to make way for plantations that, in 75 percent of cases, are never actually planted.
More than 20 million hectares of forest have been cleared since 1985, but the majority of this land has not been put to productive alternative uses.

Nearly 9 million ha of land, much of it natural forest, have been allocated for development as industrial timber plantations. This land has already been cleared or will be cleared soon. Yet only about 2 million ha have actually been planted with fast-growing species, mostly Acacia mangium, to produce pulpwood. The implication: 7 million ha of former forest land are lying idle.

Nearly 7 million ha of forest had been approved for conversion to estate crop plantations by the end of 1997, and this land has almost certainly been cleared. But the area actually converted to oil palm plantations since 1985 is about 2.6 million hectares, while new plantations of other estate crops probably account for another 1-1.5 million ha. The implication: 3 million ha of former forest land are lying idle.

No accurate estimates are available for the area of forest cleared by small-scale farmers since 1985, but a plausible estimate in 1990 suggested that shifting cultivators might be responsible for about 20 percent of forest loss. This would translate to clearance of about 4 million ha between 1985 and 1997.

The transmigration program that relocated people from densely populated Java to the outer islands was responsible for about 2 million ha of forest clearance between the 1960s and the program’s end in 1999. In addition, illegal migration and settlement by pioneer farmers at the margins of logging concessions, along roads, and even in national parks has greatly accelerated since 1997, but reliable national-scale estimates of forest clearance by forest pioneers have not been made.

Large-scale plantation owners have turned to the use of fire as a cheap and easy means of clearing forest for further planting. Deliberate fire-setting, in combination with unusually dry conditions caused by El Niño events, have led to uncontrolled wildfires of unprecedented extent and intensity. More than 5 million ha of forest burned in 1994 and another 4.6 million ha burned in 1997-98. Some of this land is regenerating as scrubby forest, some has been colonized by small-scale farmers, but there has been little systematic effort to restore forest cover or establish productive agriculture.
The Indonesian Government is facing mounting pressure domestically and internationally to take action, but progress is slow and not all policy reforms in process are necessarily good news for forests.

In the freer political atmosphere that followed the fall of President Suharto in 1998, environmental activists have demanded greater accountability from both the government and the private sector. Access to official information has improved, but efforts to prevent the worst abuses of corporate power have met with limited success.

Numerous forest-dependent communities, sensing the weakening of central power, have erupted violently against logging and plantation operations that they consider to be plundering their local resources. Longstanding problems of unclear land tenure rights are the root cause of many such conflicts. The government is no longer willing to protect corporate interests as it once did, but neither does it appear to have any coordinated plan for dealing with the problem.

Since 1999, Indonesia’s principal aid donors have coordinated their assistance through a consortium called the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI), chaired by the World Bank. Improved forest management has been declared a priority, and the Government of Indonesia has committed to a 12-point plan of policy reform. But continuing political turmoil seems likely to undermine these efforts. In April 2001, the then-Forestry Minister acknowledged many failures, saying that Indonesia should not have agreed to “such unrealistic targets.” As one example, the government imposed a moratorium on further conversion of natural forest in May 2000, but the ban is widely disregarded in the provinces.

Indonesia is moving rapidly toward a new system of “regional autonomy,” but the provincial and district governments that will benefit from decentralization are largely without the capacities or funds needed to govern effectively. Raising short-term revenue will be a top priority and, as a result, intensified exploitation of forest resources is already occurring in many regions.

Indonesian culture

Indonesian culture has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Indonesia is central along ancient trading routes between the Far East and the Middle East, resulting in many cultural practices being strongly influenced by a multitude of religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism and Islam, all strong in the major trading cities. The result is a complex cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures.

Examples of cultural fusion include the fusion of Islam with Hindu in Javanese Abangan belief, the fusion of Hinduism, Buddhism and animism in Bodha, and the fusion of Hinduism and animism in Kaharingan; others could be cited.

Indonesian art-forms express this cultural mix. Wayang, traditional theater-performed puppet shows, were a medium in the spread of Hinduism and Islam amongst Javan villagers. Both Javanese and Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau and Aceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat.


Western culture has influenced Indonesia most in modern entertainment such as television shows, movies and songs. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies. A popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arab and Malay folk music.

Despite the influences of foreign culture, some remote Indonesian regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture. Indigenous ethnic groups of Mentawai, Asmat, Dani, Dayak, Toraja and many others are still practising their ethnic rituals, customs and wearing traditional clothes.
Contents



* 1 Performing arts
o 1.1 Music
o 1.2 Dance
o 1.3 Drama and theatre
* 2 Visual arts
o 2.1 Painting
o 2.2 Sculpture
* 3 Architecture
* 4 Crafts
* 5 Literature
o 5.1 Poetry
* 6 Recreation and sports
* 7 Cuisine
* 8 Popular media
o 8.1 Cinema
o 8.2 Television
o 8.3 Radio
* 9 Religion and philosophy
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 Further reading
* 13 External links

[edit] Performing arts

[edit] Music
Music played to accompany dancers.
Music played to accompany dancers.

Main article: Music of Indonesia

Indonesia is home to hundreds of forms of music, with those from the islands of Java, Sumatra and Bali being frequently recorded. The traditional music of central and East Java and Bali is the gamelan.

In 1965, a law was passed (Panpres 11/1965) banning Western-style pop or rock music. On June 29, 1965, Koes Plus, a leading Indonesian pop group in the 1960s, 70s and 80s, was imprisoned in Glodok, West Jakarta, for playing Western-style music. [1] After the resignation of President Sukarno, with the anti-Western Partai Komunis Indonesia disbanded, the law was rescinded, and in the 1970s the Glodok prison was destroyed to be replaced with a large shopping mall. The new mall in Glodok is now the centre of recording, production and distribution of modern Indonesian pop and rock music.

Kroncong is a musical genre that uses guitars and ukuleles as the main musical instruments. This genre had its roots in Portugal and was introduced by Portuguese traders in the fifteenth century. There is a traditional Keroncong Tugu music group in North Jakarta and other traditional Keroncong music groups in Maluku, with strong Portuguese influences. This music genre was popular in the first half of the twentieth century; a contemporary form of Kroncong is called Pop Kroncong. In addition, there are regional variations such as Langgam Jawa, which is most popular in Central Java and Yogyakarta[citation needed].

The soft Sasando music from the province of East Nusa Tenggara in West Timor is completely different. Sasando uses an instrument made from a split leaf of the Lontar palm (Borassus flabellifer), which bears some resemblance to a harp.

[edit] Dance

It is not difficult to see a continuum in the traditional dances depicting episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata from India, ranging through Thailand, all the way to Bali. There is a marked difference, though, between the highly stylized dances of the courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta and their popular variations. While the court dances are promoted and even performed internationally, the popular forms of dance art and drama must largely be discovered locally.

During the last few years Saman from Aceh in North Sumatra has become rather popular and is often performed on TV.

[edit] Drama and theatre

The Javanese and Balinese shadow puppet theatre shows display several mythological events.

Randai is a folk theatre tradition of the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra, usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals. It incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the silat martial art, with performances often based on semi-historical Minangkabau stories and legends.

[edit] Visual arts

[edit] Painting

Indonesia is not generally known for paintings, aside from the intricate and expressive Balinese paintings, which often express natural scenes and themes from the traditional dances.

Other exceptions include indigenous Kenyah paint designs based on, as commonly found among Austronesian cultures, endemic natural motifs such as ferns, trees, dogs, hornbills and human figures. These are still to be found decorating the walls of Kenyah Dayak longhouses in East Kalimantan's Apo Kayan region.
Kenyah mural painting in Long Nawang, East Kalimantan.
Kenyah mural painting in Long Nawang, East Kalimantan.

Calligraphy, mostly based on the Qur'an, is often used as decoration as Islam forbids naturalistic depictions. Some foreign painters have also settled in Indonesia. Modern Indonesian painters use a wide variety of styles and themes.

[edit] Sculpture
Relief sculpture from Borobodur temple.
Relief sculpture from Borobodur temple.
Carved wooden Torajan art.
Carved wooden Torajan art.

Indonesia has a long-he Bronze and Iron Ages, but the art-form particularly flourished in the eighth to tenth centuries, both as stand-alone works of art, and also incorporated into temples.

Most notable are the hundreds of meters of relief sculpture at the temple of Borobodur in central Java. Approximately two miles of exquisite relief sculpture tell the story of the life of Buddha and illustrate his teachings. The temple was originally home to 504 statues of the seated Buddha. This site, as with others in central Java, show a clear Indian influence.

[edit] Architecture

Main article: Indonesian architecture

For centuries, the most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture were Indian, although European influences have been particularly strong since the nineteenth century and modern architecture in Indonesia is international in scope.

As in much of South East Asia, traditional buildings in Indonesia are built on stilts, with the significant exceptions of Java and Bali. Notable stilt houses are those of the Dayak people in Borneo, the Rumah Gadang of the Minangkabau people in western Sumatra, the Batak people in northern Sumatra, and the Tongkonan of the Toraja people in Sulawesi. Oversized saddle roofs with large eaves, such as the homes of the Batak and the tongkonan of Toraja, are often bigger than the house they shelter. The fronts of Torajan houses are frequently decorated with buffalo horns, stacked one above another, as an indication of status. The outside walls also frequently feature decorative reliefs.
Minangkabau Rumah Gadang
Minangkabau Rumah Gadang

The eighth-century Borobodur temple near Yogyakarta is the largest Buddhist temple in the world, and is notable for incorporating about 160 relief panels into its structure, telling the story of the life of the Buddha. As the visitor ascends through the eight levels of the temple, the story unfolds, the final three levels simply containing stupas and statues of the Buddha. The building is said to incorporate a map of the Buddhist cosmos and is a masterful fusion of the didactic, the monumental and the serene.

The nearby ninth-century temple complex at Prambanan contains some of the best preserved examples of Hindu temple architecture in Java. The temple complex comprises eight main shrines, surrounded by 250 smaller shrines. The Indian influence on the site is clear, not only in the style of the monument, but also in the reliefs featuring scenes from the Ramayana which adorn the outer walls of the main temples, and in the votive statuary found within.

[edit] Crafts

Several Indonesian islands are famous for their batik, ikat and songket cloth. Once on the brink of disappearing, batik and later ikat found a new lease of life when former President Suharto promoted wearing batik shirts on official occasions. In addition to the traditional patterns with their special meanings, used for particular occasions, batik designs have become creative and diverse over the last few years.

[edit] Literature

Main article: Indonesian literature

Pramoedya Ananta Toer was Indonesia's most internationally celebrated author, having won the Magsaysay Award as well as being considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Other important figures include the late Chairil Anwar, a poet and member of the "Generation 45" group of authors who were active in the Indonesian independence movement. Tight information controls during Suharto's presidency suppressed new writing, especially because of its ability to agitate for social reform.

In the book Max Havelaar, Dutch author Multatuli criticised the Dutch treatment of the Indonesians, which gained him international attention.

Modern Indonesian authors include Seno Gumira Adjidarma, Ayu Utami, Gus tf Sakai, Eka Kurniawan, Ratih Kumala, Dee, Oka Rusmini. A few of their works have translated into other languages.

[edit] Poetry

There is a long tradition in Indonesia, particularly among ethnically Malay populations, of extemporary, interactive, oral composition of poetry. These poems are referred to as pantun.

[edit] Recreation and sports

Main article: Sport in Indonesia

The ball used in Sepak Takraw.
The ball used in Sepak Takraw.

Many traditional games are still preserved and popular in Indonesia, although western culture has influenced some parts of them. Among three hundred officially recognized Indonesian cultures, there are many kinds of traditional games: cockfighting in Bali, annual bull races in Madura, and stone jumping in Nias. Stone jumping involves leaping over a stone wall about up to 1.5 m high and was originally used to train warriors. Pencak Silat is another popular form of sport, which was influenced by Asian culture as a whole. Another form of national sport is sepak takraw, which is originated from Melaka.[2] The rules are similar to volleyball: to keep the rattan ball in the air with the players' feet.

Popular modern sports in Indonesia played at the international level include soccer and badminton. Indonesian badminton athletes have played in Indonesia Open Badminton Championship, All England Open Badminton Championships and many international events, including the Summer Olympics ever since badminton was reintroduced in the 1992 Summer Olympics. Rudy Hartono is a legendary Indonesian badminton player, who has won All England titles six times in a row.[3] Another international level sport is soccer, active in the Asian Football Confederation (AFC).

Sporting events in Indonesia are organised by the Indonesian National Sport Committee (KONI). The Committee, along with the government of Indonesia, have set a National Sports Day on every September 9 with "Sports for All" as the motto. Jakarta has hosted the Southeast Asian Games three times, in 1979, 1987 and 1997, and won gold medals in each of these years.[4] Indonesia has won gold medals at nine of the fifteen games it has attended.

[edit] Cuisine
Nasi goreng (fried rice), one of the most popular Indonesian dishes.
Nasi goreng (fried rice), one of the most popular Indonesian dishes.

Main article: Cuisine of Indonesia

The cuisine of Indonesia has been influenced by Chinese culture and Indian culture, as well as by Western culture. However in return, Indonesian cuisine has also contributed to the cuisines of neighboring countries, notably Malaysia and Singapore, where Padang or Minangkabau cuisine from West Sumatra is very popular. Also Satay (Sate in Indonesian), which originated from Java, Madura, and Sumatra, has gained popularity as a street vendor food from Singapore to Thailand. In the fifteenth century, both the Portuguese and Arab traders arrived in Indonesia with the intention of trading for pepper and other spices. During the colonial era, immigrants from many different countries have arrived in Indonesia and brought different cultures as well as cuisines.

Most native Indonesians eat rice as the main dish, with a wide range of vegetables and meat as side dishes. However, in some parts of the country, such as Irian Jaya and Ambon, the majority of the people eat sago (a type of tapioca) and sweet potato.[5]

The most important aspect of Indonesia cuisine is that food must be halal, conforming to Islamic food laws. Haraam, the opposite of halal, includes pork and alcoholic drinks. However, in some regions where there is significant non-Muslim population, non-halal food are also commonly served.

Indonesian dishes are usually spicy, using a wide range of chili peppers and spices. The most popular dishes include nasi goreng (fried rice), Satay, Nasi Padang (a dish of Minangkabau) and soy-based dishes, such as tofu and tempe. A unique characteristic of some Indonesian food is the application of spicy peanut sauce in their dishes, as a dressing for Gado-gado or Karedok (Indonesian style salad), or for seasoning grilled chicken satay. Another unique aspect of Indonesian cuisine is using terasi or belacan, a pungent shrimp paste in dishes of sambal oelek (hot pungent chili sauce). The sprinkling of fried shallots also gives a unique crisp texture to some Indonesian dishes.

Chinese and Indian cultures have influenced the serving of food and the types of spices used. It is very common to find Chinese food in Indonesia such as Dim Sum as well as noodles, and Indian cuisine such as Tandoori chicken. In addition, Western culture has significantly contributed to the extensive range of dishes. However, the dishes have been transformed to suit Indonesian people's tastes. For example, steaks are usually served with rice. Popular fast foods such as Kentucky Fried Chicken are served with rice instead of bread, and sambal (spicy sauce) instead of ketchup. Some Indonesian foods have been adopted by the Dutch, like Indonesian rice table or 'rijsttafel'.

[edit] Popular media

[edit] Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Indonesia

The largest chain of cinemas in Indonesia is 21Cineplex, which has cinemas spread throughout twenty-four cities on the major islands of Indonesia. Many smaller independent cinemas also exist.

In the 1980s, the film industry in Indonesia was at its peak, and dominated the cinemas in Indonesia with movies that have retained a high reputation, such as Catatan Si Boy and Blok M and actors like Onky Alexander, Meriam Bellina, Nike Ardilla and Paramitha Rusady.[6] However, the film industry failed to continue its successes in the 1990s, when the number of movies produced decreased significantly, from 115 movies in 1990 to just 37 in 1993.[7] As a result, most movies produced in the '90s contained adult themes. In addition, movies from Hollywood and Hong Kong started to dominate Indonesian cinema. The industry started to recover in the late 1990s, with the rise of independent directors and many new movies produced, such as Garin Nugroho's Cinta dalam Sepotong Roti, Riri Riza and Mira Lesmana's Petualangan Sherina and Arisan! by Nia Dinata.[6] Another form of recovery is the re-establishment of the Indonesian Film Festival (FFI), inactive for twelve years, and the creation of the Jakarta International Film Festival. Daun Di Atas Bantal (1998) received The Best Movie award in the Asia Pacific Film Festival in Taipei (1998).[citation needed]

[edit] Television

Television in Indonesia began on August 17, 1962 in Jakarta with the state-run station, TVRI, which began broadcasting on the seventeenth anniversary of Indonesian Independence.[citation needed] It held a television monopoly in Indonesia until 1989, when the first commercial station, RCTI(Rajawali Citra Televisi Indonesia) began as a local station and was subsequently granted a national license a year later.

Since then, several commercial stations have started up. As of 2006, eleven nation-wide commercial networks are available: RCTI, TPI, SCTV, antv, Indosiar, Metro TV, TV7, Trans TV, Lativi, and Global TV. Several regional television stations serve viewers even in remote and poor areas.[citation needed] Commonly, local governments run these stations.[citation needed]

Each of the network has a wide variety of programs, ranging from traditional show, such as wayang performance, to programs like Indonesian Idol that are based on Western models. One typical television show of almost every network is sinetron[8] Sinetron is usually a drama series, following the soap opera format, but can also refer to any fictional series. Sometimes it can be comic, like the popular Bajaj Bajuri series, featuring a bajaj (a taxi-like tricycle) driver and the people he drives around.

During 2006, trial transmissions of digital TV (DVB-T) took place in Jakarta.[citation needed] Digital cable PayTV transmission service through fibre optic is available in Bekasi, near Jakarta and several apartments in Jakarta.[citation needed] Digital satellite PayTV transmission services (DVB-S) are available throughout Indonesia.[citation needed]

[edit] Radio

The state radio network Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI) was founded in 1945. It consists of a network of regional stations located in all thirty-three provinces of the archipelago. In most cities and large towns there are also many commercial stations. Since 2006, several digital radio stations have been based in Jakarta and Surabaya, using Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and Hybrid HD-Radio.[citation needed]

[edit] Religion and philosophy

Main articles: Religion in Indonesia and Indonesian philosophy

Islam is Indonesia's main religion, with almost 88% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census[9], making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. The remaining population is 9% Christian (of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant with the remainder mainly Catholic, and a large minority Charismatic), 2% Hindu and 1% Buddhist.

The Pancasila, the statement of five principles which encapsulate the ideology of the independent Indonesian state, affirms that "The state shall be based on the belief in the one and only God"